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| Getting ready for the Dragon Dance at a Multicultural Festival in Hobart |
The tripling of the oil price in the 1970’s was not the only shockwave to hit the Australian economy. When Britain joined the European Common Market in 1973, Australia had to scramble to find new markets for its produce which had hitherto reliably gone to the UK. It entered into a number of free trade agreements such as the one between Australia and New Zealand, between Singapore and Australia and one with China in the 1980s.
It also led to the dismantling of tariff barriers between countries which meant that labour intensive industries such as clothing and footwear could not compete with those produced with cheaper labour in Asia. Soon other companies also sought to take advantage of cheaper production abroad and Australia’s factories began to close. Australia could now no longer accommodate large numbers of unskilled workers -"factory fodder” as it were, and shifted its focus to skilled migration, business migrants and service industries such as education.
There was another change too. Whereas previously migrants were simply expected to assimilate magically and forget their original culture as quickly as possible, there was now recognition that preserving cultural heritage was important and that some cultures would need more help to adapt. The idea of integration and multiculturalism was born, although the recommendations of various papers on the subject did not take effect until 1978 and 1989 when an Office of Multicultural Affairs was established.
1975 VIETNAM
With the last vestiges of the White Australia policy dismantled in 1972, it was tested soon after when 80,000 Vietnamese sought asylum in Australia after the fall of Saigon (1975) in order to escape political persecution. Given than an estimated 1 million people were killed by communist forces in what was formerly South Vietnam, many risked their lives to make the perilous journey and many died along the way.
Over the next ten years they were joined by many more, both legal and illegal - ‘boat people’ though the numbers of the latter pale into insignificance. At the time of the Census in 2021, there were between 180,000 and 200, 000 people from Vietnam living in Australia.
Until the oil shocks in mid 1970s, the economy was doing well. Unemployment was between 1 -2%, but had now risen above 5% and inflation reached 17%. Unfortunately, in worsening economic times, people often see immigration as a scapegoat, just as they are doing today.
Due to language difficulties and in many cases low skill and educational levels, it also took longer for Vietnamese migrants to assimilate and there was considerable pushback from the Australian public. While the White Australia Policy had ended, public attitudes had not changed and many Vietnamese faced abuse, unemployment and discrimination. A consequence was that Australia’s first anti -discrimination laws came into effect in 1975. After 1996, as conditions improved in Vietnam, immigration from Vietnam effectively ceased.
As Tuong Quang Luu an early arrival and former diplomat in the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) remarked, “If you conducted a survey of the general public, it would not have been in favour of resettlement of such a large number of people in such a short time.”
The Intensification of Immigration from Asia
1970s PHILIPPINES
Before the 1970’s most Philippine migrants were the spouses of Australians though there were a few students under the Columbo Plan which sought to hasten development by having students from many parts of Asia study in Australia. In later years, they sponsored family members and visas were also granted to skilled tradespeople and professionals.
Once the White Australia Policy had been dismantled, there was a considerable influx of people seeking stability and economic opportunity in Australia with immigrants from the Philippines becoming one of the fastest growing sectors and fifth largest group of immigrants overall. The 2021 Census showed 310,620 people having been born in the Philippines and 408,842 having Philippine ancestry.
1970s -1980s MALAYSIA
Malaysia followed a very similar trajectory. First a few students came under the Columbo Plan many of whom married Australians. These were followed by family reunions and with the lifting of the White Australia Policy, skilled and business migrants after 1981. Although Islam is the main religion in Malaysia, only 7% of those who came to Australia were Muslim, the others being predominately Buddhist, Christian or belonged to no faith. Excluding those with Chinese or Indian ancestry, there were 165,000 Malaysian -born Australians in 2023 and 180,000 with Malaysian ancestry, making them the 9th largest group.
1975 EAST TIMOR
After the 1975 takeover of East Timor by Indonesia, some 2,500 Timorese, mostly of Portuguese descent were also accepted into Australia.
1975 CAMBODIA
Prior to 1975, there were few Cambodians in Australia, mostly students and a few professionals and their families. The outbreak of civil war and subsequent take over by the Khmer Rouge, brought thousands more, though many spent years in refugee camps in places such as Thailand before being allowed to come to Australia. Between 1981 and 1990 family reunions and further humanitarian intakes added to their number so that by the time of the 2021 Census there were 39,000 people who were born in Cambodia
1980s HMONG (LAOS)
The Hmong are a small ethnic group originally from Southern China which has since migrated into Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Myanmar. The first came as students under the Columbo Plan and as refugees following the 1976 Lao Civil War and later sponsored family members. Although a small community of 3,400, they have added their own distinctive culture and flavours to Australian life.
1983 -2009 SRI LANKA
Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948, but remained within the Commonwealth until 1972 when it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
Between 1948 and 1960, some 100,000 to 150,000 students had come to Australia under the Columbo Plan with most of them being the descendants of British, Dutch and Portuguese nationals after which many remained in Australia.
Changes to the White Australia Policy in the 1970s allowed many Sri Lankans to come under family reunion programs or under family sponsorship. The Sri Lankan Civil War which ran from 1980 – 2009 saw large numbers of Tamils, Singhalese and other vulnerable ethnic groups coming to Australia. Since then, they have been joined by Skilled Migrants and professionals. By 2021 there were 131,904 Sri Lankans in Australia and 145,430 with Sri Lankan heritage, making them the 8th largest ethnic group in Australia, though they are themselves made up of many different groups.
1989 CHINA
In the 1950s, a small group of Tibetan Buddhists fleeing
persecution was given permission to stay in Australia on humanitarian grounds.
It was only after the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 that pro- democracy
activists – mostly students, were granted asylum in Australia with 20,000 going to Victoria alone.
During the 1990s others came under the new rules– mostly professionals such as doctors and business investors, seeking greater opportunity in Australia. Because command of English helped to determine visa eligibility which was now based on a points system rather than race, coming to Australia to study became popular, particularly as it provided a pathway to permanent residency once qualified.
1997 THE HANDOVER OF HONG KONG
As of 2021 there were 1,390, 637 people of Chinese origin in Australia of which 549,618 came from mainland China, 101,290 from Hong Kong when it was returned to China after 156 years of British rule.Those with Chinese ancestry are now the second largest group of overseas migrants after Indians.
A further 59,250 have come from TAIWAN as tensions have escalated there. Another group are the UIGHURS who were facing persecution in their homeland, the far western Province of Xinjiang. Approximately 3,000 – 5000 have settled in Australia and are hoping to be able to continue their culture and traditions.
There’s a long list of notable achievers of Chinese ancestry, in business, in the arts and politics, but I’ll just mention a few which have become household names -notably the current Minster for Foreign Affairs, Penny Wong, heart surgeon Victor Chang, who was unfortunately murdered during an attempted robbery and the brilliant designer Jenny Kee who is of Chinese and Italian background. The last two have been awarded the Order of Australia. China also gave us Chinese herbal medicine, acupuncture and the rich spiritual traditions of Buddhism.
2000s NEPAL
Nepalese Immigration began slowly in the 1980’s and 1990s – mostly students and a few skilled migrants. In the 2000 political instability in Nepal and educational opportunities in Australia and family reunion programs brought many more. By June 2022, there were 151,140 Nepalese living Australia, making them one of the fastest growing groups and the fourth largest after India, China and the Philippines. Their main occupations are in healthcare, aged care, IT and a number of small businesses.
2017 THE ROHINGA CRISIS /MYANMAR
Violent crackdown by the military in 2017 caused many
Rohinga to flee to neighbouring Bangladesh, creating one of the largest refugee
crises in modern history. Some refugees have now been accepted into Australia under the Humanitarian intake, but their numbers remain unclear with many awaiting their turn..
2022 BHUTAN
The most recent arrivals from Asia have come from Bhutan, mostly for education and skilled migration. As of 2023 there are approximately 12,000 Bhutanese in Australia.
Migration from the Pacific
1970 -1980’s NEW ZEALAND
In the 1970s New Zealand experienced similar economic turmoil to Australia, having lost its market for lamb and dairy produce. In 1973 the Trans Travel Arrangement was signed allowing unrestricted travel between the two countries Many New Zealanders now crossed the Tasman in search of greater opportunity, though some restrictions were applied in 1991. As of June 2023, there were 586,020 New Zealanders in Australia, making them the third largest immigrant group in Australia.
TONGA and SAMOA
The new Travel Arrangements and New Zealand’s own policies with respect to the island nations in the region, also enabled many Togans and Samoans to come to Australia in the 1970s and 1980s. The 2021 Census found that approximately 12,260 Tongans and 28,107 Samoans had settled in Australia.
!975 PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Since Papua New Guinea gained Independence in 1975, approximately 29,984 Papua New Guineans had migrated to Australia by 2021.
1980s FIJI
A series of Coups brought numerous Fijians to Australia in the 1980s and immigration from Fiji has remained steady as many more Fijians come under the Skilled Migrant Schemes of later years. At last count there were around 66,043 Fijians living in Australia.
2000 NI -VANUATU
In addition to regular migration there are also approximately 36,000 workers from Vanuatu, Kiribati and other Pacific Islands who fill gaps in Australia’s rural workforce, particularly in the agricultural sector. They are usually brought in under the PALM scheme for temporary or permanent work by employers unable to find sufficient local manpower.
As at 2021 approximately 337,000 people have migrated from the Pacific Islands or have Pacific Islander heritage, excluding those from Australia and New Zealand.
African Migration
1981 SOUTH AFRICA
As with other Commonwealth Countries, there had always been free movement between South Africa and Australia for white South Africans. However, that trickle began turning into a flood when Apartheid officially ended in 1981 and only grew more intense after the first democratic elections were held in 1994. Since then, an estimated 800,000 to 1 million South Africans have left South Africa, mainly for the UK and other English-speaking countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada. As of 2023 there were 214,790 South Africans in Australia, making them the 7th largest group of immigrants
Other African Nations
Migrants and refugees have also come from some 55 other African nations in response to conflict, political instability, natural disasters or poor economic conditions. Others, Particularly Nigerians and Kenyans have come for educational and professional opportunities. A few examples follow.
1961, 2000 ERITREA
The Eritrean War of Independence – 1961 – 1991, and the Eritrean –
Ethiopian War, 1998 – 2000 brought 5,629 Eritreans to Australia (2021 Census).
1970s -1990s ETHIOPIA
Ethiopians come from very diverse backgrounds - Some are Christians, some are Muslims and some are Pentecostals, all of them dislocated due to civil conflict, drought and famine. As of 2021, there were 14,902 Ethiopians in Australia
1980 ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980 around which time many white settlers began to leave. Economic instability, violence and land reforms in the early 2000s also sparked a further wave of departures including both black and white professionals. At the 2021 Census there were 39,714 persons born in Zimbabwe, though the wider community including those born elsewhere (many fled to neighbouring countries at first) is thought to be closer to 65,000.
1983 – 2005 SUDAN
The Sudanese Civil War had brought 19,369 refugees to Australia by 2021.
1991 SOMALIA
The Somali Civil War officially began in 1991, but tensions had been building for some time and continued long after. As of 2021 there were 18, 401 Somalis in Australia, mostly on Humanitarian grounds.
1991s SIERRA LEONE
The Civil War in Sierra Leone which ran from 1991 – 2002, displaced thousands brought many refugees to Australia for Humanitarian reasons. More recently, have migrated via the Skilled Migration Stream and now work in areas such as healthcare, education and business. By 2021, its Australian population had grown to 4, 000.
In 2020 approximately 400,000 people in Australia identified as being of African descent, with approximately 58% being white.
Immigration from the Middle East
1975 - 1990 LEBANON
Some Lebanese Christians had already arrived during the occupation by the Ottoman Empire in the late C19th. Many of them began as travelling salesmen throughout rural Australia, where they eventually opened stores and businesses. Variously called Turks, Aryans or Asians, further immigration was restricted by the White Australia Policy.
Some easing of the White Australia Policy permitted the entry of more migrants so that by 1947 there were 25,000 Lebanese people in Australia. The Arab -Israeli War (1967) and the Lebanese Civil War in Lebanon (1970s to 1980s) led to further migration so that by 2021, there were 87,343 Lebanese -born people in Australia and 248, 430 of Lebanese descent.
The Lebanese Community is not a homogenous group, coming as it does from different faiths and different educational backgrounds. Nevertheless, they are united in wanting to become Australian with 96% attaining citizenship. Lebanese in Australia – ALHSV
1979 IRAN
In 1979 when religious leader the Ayatollah Khomeini, came to power in Iran, traditional Islamic Law was restored, all Western culture was banned, women were required to wear a veil and denied equal rights and harsh ancient punishments were reinstated. Dissidents were persecuted or executed. This led to a mass exodos of Iranians with some 2,500 coming to Australia.
In 1981, a special program was created to enable Iranians from religious minorities which were facing persecution, to come to Australia. Since 2000, this has included many Skilled migrants such as doctors, engineers IT specialists and academics. Iranians are also represented in the arts. In 2021, there were 77,870 Iranians of various faiths living in Australia, not counting their descendants.
1970s, 1990s AFGHANISTAN
1970s -1980’s following the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the lifting of the White Australia Policy, a small number of Afghans arrived under Humanitarian Programs. In the 1990s -1991, their numbers increased with the rise of the Taliban. Severe drought in 2000 prompted further migration.
As of June 2025 there were 7,950 Afghani migrants in Australia, making them the 25th largest national group
1980s - 2021 HAZARA Migration
The Hazara with their distinct language and culture have long faced persecution in their homelands – notably Afghanistan and Pakistan. Following the 1980s The Soviet -Afghan War and the ensuing Civil War, some 5000 Hazara sought refuge in Australia. Since the Taliban regained power in 2021, thousands more have sought asylum. In 2021 there were 41,766 Hazara living in Australia. They work in law, medicine, engineering, education and business.
2021 THE ARAB SPRING
In 2010 protests erupted throughout much of the Middle East in response to severe drought and rising food prices. These protests resulted in severe crackdowns by governments. However, in the case of Egypt and Tunisia, they resulted in in a change of leadership and some concessions, whereas in Syria, Libya, Yemen and Bahrain, political oppression became more severe, resulting in a mass exodus from those countries between 2010 and 2020. Here's how Syria fared.
2010 SYRIA
As with the Lebanese, the Ottoman occupation had brought a small number of Syrian migrants to Australia in the 1890s. They were complemented by a small Post War cohort which slowly increased their number and again in 1986 – usually students, professionals and family reunions, when restrictions on immigration were relaxed. It was the Arab Spring (2021) however, which led to mass emigration from Syria.
Initially, these were peaceful protests after decades of economic oppression and political instability which increased due to drought. When these protests were met with violence, millions of Syrians fled. In 2021 there were 29,096 Syrian refugees in Australia and approximately 55,000 who have Syrian ancestry.
EGYPT
Migration from Egypt- apart from the early cameleers, took off in the 1950s as growing Arabic nationalism led to the removal of King Farouk in the Egyptian Revolution in 1952 and the closure of the Suez Canal. The community grew slowly and steadily but more so in periods of political instability and unrest. In 2021, there were 43,213 Egyptian - born people living in Australia.
2000 PAKISTAN
Political instability, periods of authoritarian rule and the desire for better prospects also brought many Pakistani migrants to Australia, particularly after the War on Terror when uncertainty intensified. By June 2022 there 103,120 Pakistanis in Australia. Some were granted permanent residency via the Business and Investment program, others via Partner visas, the Skilled Migrant Program or were employer sponsored. Main occupations include healthcare, IT, engineering, businesses such as retail, hospitality and professional services and education and research.
1948 – PALESTINE and GAZA
Ever since NABKA – when Britain handed over of part of Palestine to displaced Jewish people after WW II, there have been outflows of Palestinian refugees, intensifying in the 1960s after the Arab – Lebanese War, in 1991 after the Gulf War and more recently from Gaza. In 2021 there were 34,502 Palestinians in Australia.
1991 RUSSIA
After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, there was a new influx of Russians, mostly well educated professionals. By 2021 the Census showed 23,864 Russia -born residents.
!991 - 2022 UKRAINE
Australia has long had a small Ukrainian population, particularly after WW II. After the breakup of the soviet Union and Ukraine gaining independence in 1991, their numbers received boost totalling approximately 14,055 in 2121. However, since war broke out with Russia in 2022, more than 6 million Ukrainians have been displaced, of which about 5,000 Ukrainian refugees have come to Australia. Many of those who have arrived as refugees are now hoping to gain permanent residency.
This is by no means a full list of all who have come to Australia but I'll stop here - I have cut this down from 46 pages of notes, because I want to move on to the next part (V) which involves a bit of myth busting. In consequence, I haven't been able to include the immense cultural and individual contributions made by all these of these people, but it is primarily through the labour of so many, that Australia enjoys the living standards and cultural richness which it has today. While we see this most obviously on a daily basis in our cuisine and our changing high streets, Australia has also benefited from the ideas and innovations which people from other countries have brought with them, whether in science, the arts, academe, our social arrangements or technology.
Yes, there are some challenges, especially for older Australians who have grown up with White Australia, but in due course, I'll be talking about ways in which we can minimise the downsides, while continuing to enjoy the benefits of immigration in Part VI.
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