Adaptation to Climate Change - 5 (b) The Marine Environment - Large Scale Responses by Governments and Others

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The ocean doesn’t respect borders, politics, or loyalties  - neither do a lot of fishermen, it seems. Thank you to those who do. The Ocean's job is to move heat, carbon, nutrients, and life across entire hemispheres, well beyond the jurisdiction of any one country. The first part of this post is about how countries manage declining fish stocks and avoid conflicts.  The second part is about ways in which we can help. 

1.     Managing Fish Stocks

The Role of National Governments

National governments generally set overall fisheries laws, quotas, reporting requirements, and conservation frameworks, while in Australia at least, State governments manage inshore fisheries, licensing, local closures, and compliance. Both levels of government are increasingly having to intervene due to climate‑driven stock collapses — including emergency closures and orderly licence buyouts.

Only a few weeks ago, Tasmanian's southern fishery for the Sand Flathead – one of the most popular fish for recreational fishers and the Fish and Chip trade, had to be abruptly closed due to an alarming drop in numbers - less than 5% of former levels, much to the ire of both commercial fishers and those who just like to drop a line in on the weekend. From time to time, this has had to happen with other species and in other countries too. 

Other fisheries in Australia which have had to close

• South‑East Trawl Fishery Buyout

 In 2022 -23 The Federal government spent $20–24 million buying out vessel permits due to climate‑driven declines in key species. This was the first time Australian authorities explicitly cited climate change as the reason for a structural adjustment.

• Pink Snapper Declines (South Australia & WA) (2022 -2026)

Warming waters and recruitment failure  resulted in regional closures and strict quotas. This was reported in  IPCC‑ lierature in connection with climate impacts on Australian fisheries, but the species is slowly recovering with help from  almost a million snapper fingerlings raised in captivity.

Despite Australia’s vast coastline, its waters are in fact quite nutrient -poor compared to say, those of Asia, and they do not support large numbers of fish or other marine species. Nevertheless, other countries have also had to take drastic action such as buyouts and bans. 

• United States – West Coast Groundfish Buyout (2003–2010) 

In 2003 this fishery was in such bad shape that Federal government bought out over 90 vessels and 239 fishing permits to rebuild overfished stocks. Strict quotas were placed on remaining boats as well as new licensing conditions. Through the work of scientists, fishmen and conservationists, the fishery slowly recovered so that by October 2025, numbers of the last species of groundfish to recover, were back to healthy levels, several years earlier than expected. It's a real success story in how to save a fishery.

• Canada – Atlantic Cod Moratorium (1992–present)  

 In 1992 Canada's Federal government also bought out licences and provided long -term income support and retraining programs because the Cod catch had fallen to below 1% of historic levels. Thirty - seven thousand fishermen lost their jobs. 

This is an interesting story because part of the demise of the the Cod stemmed from the use of modern equipment such as sonar, which not only greatly increased catches throughout the 1980s, but allowed the precise targeting of large mature fish, leading to a loss of young Cod to take their place. There was also an enormous amount of bycatch which included the prey on which Cod thrived. 

Even after strict quotas were introduced, the Cod did not recover as expected because now their eggs and young were being eaten by the very prey species which had proliferated without them. Illegal fishing was often blamed too, rightly or wrongly.

 

In 2024, Newfoundlanders, who had been the hardest hit,  were able to celebrate as low catch volumes started being allowed again in some regions.  However, the impact of warmer waters has not been factored in and full recovery remains uncertain.

• The European Union

EU member states routinely use decommissioning schemes (buyouts)  and subsidies to fishermen to reduce fleet capacity due to climate related stock shifts in the North Sea and the Mediterranean. As a result of quota cuts and temporary closures the fortunes of fishermen have improved, but there is concern that the financial cost of  of keeping fleets idle until more sustainable levels of fish stocks are reached, is as much as one quarter of the value of the catch..

• New Zealand – Quota Management System (QMS)

New Zealand did not use buyouts but established a system of allowable catches  for species at risk in particular locations. Its national government adjusts Total Allowable Catch (TAC) annually. Climate‑linked declines (e.g., pāua and rock lobster in some regions) have triggered local closures and commercial quota reductions.See for example the sustainability measures for a particular species of rock lobster.

•  Pacific Island Nations – Regional Agreements

 Under the Parties to the Nauru Agreement (PNA), vessel‑day limits and closures are used to manage tuna stocks affected by warming and shifting currents.

More Success Stories

1. Southern Bluefin Tuna (Australia + International)

Stock rebuilding occurred only because quotas stayed extremely low for decades. Managers are still warning that climate change could reduce recruitment - meaning, how many young fish will live long enough to join the main population .—.

2. Pacific Bluefin Tuna

Tuna recovered faster than expected and catch limits remain conservative. Agencies emphasise that the species is still climate‑sensitive.

3. Western Rock Lobster (WA)

After a climate‑driven recruitment crash, strict pot limits and catch caps were introduced to rebuild the stock. Despite considerable recovery, pre -collapse levels have not yet been reached and Fishery managers have kept limits as a precaution.

Just because stocks have recovered in some instances, does not signal that fishing should immediately  return to former levels. Nor does it mean that others should immediately jump into the breach. Recovery is proof of good management and discipline, not a licence to increase fishing pressure. Recovered fisheries remain vulnerable to climate variability, and maintaining conservative limits is essential to prevent renewed decline. 

Protecting Biodiversity

One of the strongest planks in the fight to retain the abundance and diversity of the world's oceans is Marine Protected Areas. (MPAs). MPAs are designated ocean zones where human activities like fishing or mining are restricted or managed to protect biodiversity and ecosystem health. They are created by national governments in line with the UN's Environment Program  and in accordance with its Convention on Biodiversity. 

Well-designed and effectively managed MPAs help shellfish and fish populations recover by providing safe breeding grounds, reducing pollution, and buffering climate impacts. Studies show MPAs increase biomass, biodiversity, and ecosystem resilience, offering natural insurance against climate change and disease outbreaks. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia) and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (USA) - one of the world's largest marine parks, are but two examples and have demonstrated recovery of key species and habitats through protection.

I always think of these as our 'Sacred Sites.' That’s an Aboriginal concept which restricted hunting in certain locations and enabled animals to to recover and Aboriginal people to survive live continuously on a relatively dry and barren landmass for over 60,000 years.

The problem is that firstly there are simply not enough MPAs. Despite commitments made by national governments under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to increase them to 30% of the ocean’s surface by 2030, MPAs only cover about 8% at this stage. Secondly, they only cover the region within 200 nautical miles of a country – It’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as it’s called, which gives it rights over its fish stocks and resources.

Only a few countries have met their targets and it also depends on what we mean by ‘protected.’ Usually it just means ‘no -take’ rather than banning other activities. 

Countries which have met or exceeded their targets include the following

•  The Cook Islands  This has to be the standout winner, having 100% of its EEZ in the Marae Moana Marine Park 

•  Palau

Palau’s National Marine Sanctuary protects 80% of its waters.

•  Chile

Chile has created enormous MPAs around Easter Island, Juan Fernández, and the southern Pacific, protecting over 40% of its waters.

 United Kingdom

Through its vast overseas territories (Pitcairn, BIOT, South Georgia, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha), the UK has protected over 30% of its marine estate — one of the largest MPA networks on Earth.

• United States

The expansion of Papahānaumokuākea and Pacific Remote Islands MPAs means the US protects around 26–30%, depending on classification.

• France

Thanks to its overseas territories (New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Réunion, on so forth, France protects over 30% of its EEZ.

• Seychelles

The Seychelles were able  to create large MPAs through a debt‑for‑nature swap,  which now protect over 30% of its coast.

On paper, Australia has 60–62 Marine Parks which officially cover 52% of its coastline, yet so far these have largely been lines on the map, with no real protection including for some ecologically important areas. Most of these were proclaimed in 2012, but their management plans were only finalised and came into force in 2018. The current Environment Minister has pledged that by 2030, at least 30% of Australia 's EEZ would have full ' gold plated" protection.

While MPAs help to protect a country’s fishery and marine resources and national interests, that isn’t guaranteed when fish stocks are declining or moving about in response to changing temperatures and currents, or what they eat declines or goes elsewhere. This is where monitoring and management of fish stocks comes in, especially when fish stocks straddle more than one country or range far and wide. Global problems call for global solutions.

 2. Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) 

When fish stocks are shared between countries they are often managed through collaborative organisations called Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RMFOs). Typical examples include the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). See also the Central Arctic Fishing Agreement (CAOFA).

They coordinate management of fish stocks by helping to regulate fishing quotas, combat illegal fishing, and promoting sustainable practices. They rely on science-based decision-making and contribute to rebuilding overfished stocks and protecting vulnerable species. However, this has always left much of the ocean unprotected until recently.

3. The High Seas Treaty — A Landmark for Biodiversity 

One of the true highlights of recent years – possibly in response to declining catches, has been the adoption by UN members of the High Seas Treaty in 2023  which establishes the legal framework for protecting biodiversity in international waters. It covers nearly 50% of the ocean and came into force on the 17th of  January 2026, after reaching the required 60 ratifications in September 2025.

• The      Treaty enables the creation of MPAs in the high seas, regulates activities like deep-sea mining and fishing, and promotes scientific cooperation.
• This is a historic step toward global stewardship of marine ecosystems that are crucial for fisheries, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation.
• The treaty fosters equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources, supporting sustainable use and conservation. Click here for more.

All laudable aims. However, questions remain as to who will enforce them? And how? Monitoring is of course much easier now with satellite technology and AI. 

 How the Various Organisations Combine to Protect the Ocean

  I can’t speak for other countries, but here’s how these elements work together in Australia 

 

Level of Government/ Organisation	What they Do	How it Helps
International (UNCLOS, High Seas Treaty)	Sets conservation obligations, regulates high‑seas biodiversity, enables MPAs	Protects migratory species & shifting stocks
Regional (RFMOs, PNA, RBAs)	Shared quotas, vessel limits, monitoring	Essential as species move across borders
National Governments	Quotas, reporting, enforcement, buyouts, research	Climate‑driven stock declines → emergency closures & structural adjustment
State/Provincial Governments	Inshore fisheries, licensing, local closures/ fines	Rapid response to local collapses (e.g., Tasmania flathead)

Other Global Initiatives

4. Global Sustainable Aquaculture and Blue Economy Initiatives

• The FAO Blue Growth Initiative and other UN programs promote sustainable aquaculture practices which seek to balance production with ecosystem health.
• Innovations in eco -certification, traceability, and responsible sourcing empower consumers and producers to support sustainable seafood.

5. Community-Led Conservation and Indigenous Stewardship

• Around the world, Indigenous peoples and local communities are reclaiming stewardship of marine resources, blending traditional knowledge with modern science.
• Community-managed marine areas show higher biodiversity and resilience, fostering social equity and cultural preservation.
• This inclusive governance strengthens local economies and builds adaptive capacity to climate change.

Indigenous and Community-Led Marine Conservation

• United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) recognises the rights of 
  Indigenous stewardship of marine and coastal resourcesi
• The Nature Conservancy — Indigenous-led Shellfish Restoration
  First nations people are also involved in restoration and conservation work such as restoration of shellfish beds in the Pacific Northwest.
  
  

What Can We Do?

What Can We Do?

The ocean is vast and works on time scales we can barely imagine and its problems are vast too. That may seem overwhelming. However, we can take heart that some solutions are working -especially when nations work together. It may seem that individuals can’t do much, but there are many things we can all do.

1. Let’s Start with Fishing

• If you fish, stick to the rules about catch limits, size limits, and temporary, seasonal, or permanent bans. Make sure others do, too. Australians don't like 'snitches" - people who report others, but if you think of it as someone stealing from your children and future generations, that's another kettle of fish, as we would say. 
• Listen to advice from Fisheries departments and authorities. Some fish or areas may be off-limits for other reasons too such as sewage spills, algal blooms, or industrial contamination.
• Be honest about catch numbers and fish kills. It’s one of the few ways fishery managers know what’s working and what needs improvement. This helps avoid nasty surprises like the sudden closure of Tasmania's southern Sand Flathead fishery.
• If you are out in a boat or ship, make sure you bring everything back -nets, ropes, plastic bottles, food wrappers, etc. The same goes for the beach. Leaving debris harms marine life and ecosystems.

2. What Happens on Land Doesn’t Stay on Land 

• Be careful what you put down the drain too—no oil, paint, medications, or harmful chemicals. Your local council can advise on how to dispose of them properly. 
• Farmers can help by reducing run -off and protecting waterways and wetlands which helps to stop pollutants entering the sea.
• Help with beach restoration, conservation efforts and clean-ups, or by reporting observations and counting species including shorebirds and migratoryspecies, removing invasive species like Pacific Sea Stars in Tasmania, or planting mangroves in Djibouti, or any other initiative your community is doing that will help our sealife. 

Mangroves, by the way, don't just provide habitat for fish, they also protect humans by acting as natural green sea walls which not only reduce flooding, storm surges and cyclonic winds. These all grow more frequent and more intense the more the ocean warms. 

3. Engage with Your Local Council

• Councils control stormwater, coastal protection, wetlands, plastics policies, and restoration projects.
• They often act quickly when residents speak up, so talk to your local council about ocean and coastal health concerns.

4. Longer-Term Actions 

• Choose electric vehicles and tools when replacing old ones.
• Use bikes or public transport whenever possible.
• Travel and fly less. Work from home if your job allows it.
• Walking is good for your health and the planet.

5. Think About What You Eat and Buy

• Buy sustainable seafood where possible. Certification systems aren’t perfect but are better than nothing. Look for the Marine Stewardship Council's (MSC) (International and AU) blue fish tick label. See also Seafood Watch  guides (US) or the one put out by Australia's Good Fish Organisation, which includes a restaurant guide as well.
• Reduce seafood consumption if you can.
• Shop locally to reduce emissions from transport.
• Use less plastic and avoid clothes made from synthetic materials, which release microplastics into the ocean.
• Consider installing fine filters on washing machines to stop microfibers from reaching waterways.
• Pay attention to where your investments and pension funds go—are they supporting fossil fuels or renewable industries?

6. Advocate and Raise Your Voice

• Write to your MP and advocate for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), ocean health, krill,* whales, and any other species needing protection.
• Oppose new fossil fuel extraction and excessive shipping.
• Public pressure works. Campaigns have stopped projects like the Scott Reef gas hub in Australia, overturned mining permits in Indonesia, and helped to establish marine protected areas in California.
• Even if not every campaign succeeds, they change the conversation and increase scrutiny on harmful practices.

7. Support Our Scientists

• Scientists monitoring and modelling ocean health provide vital early warnings but are often the first to be defunded, especially when their reports become politically or economically inconvenient.
• Their work saves us money by protecting industries and preventing disasters, buyouts, bailouts, not to mention rising insurance premiums. 
• Support organisations and individuals doing this work through donations, volunteering or advocacy.
• Only about 3% of philanthropic funding goes to ocean conservation—more support is needed.

8. Don’t Knock the UN

• Global problems need global solutions.
• The UN may seem clumsy and slow and is often criticised for it's talkfests, junkets and those private jets , but it has brought together people from vastly different cultures and circumstances and achieved important agreements such as the Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, the High Seas Treaty, and protections for endangered species.
• Without the UN, ocean protection would be far worse.

For more inspiration Click here or here.  No single action will “save” the oceans, but millions of small actions create the cultural and political momentum needed for change.

*And about those Krill Fisheries......(see previous post)

International Health and Wellness chain Holland and Barrett, has dropped krill products from its 1000+ stores, because of the impact of krill fishing on Antarctic wildlife. As reported by marine Conservation organisation Sea Sheperd, the expiry of an agreement calling for dispersed krill fishing over wider areas to prevent localised depletion, has meant that krill fishers have moved into biodiversity rich areas which threatens populations dependent on krill such as whales penguins and seals. Other pharmaceutical giants such as Priceline (AU) are considering similar moves.  You know what to do.  

Thank you to all the angels in AI Cyberheaven for helping me out with this post.