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| -Image by Copilot AI |
It was World Glacier Day on March 21, so it seems like a good time to be talking about the Cryosphere. By Cryosphere, we mean all those places on earth which are, or were until recently covered in snow and ice, not a place where you sit in the corner and cry your eyes out, though after reading all this, you may well want to do that too. Alpine Regions, Glaciers, Polar Regions and Permafrost Zones are all showing signs of global warming and Climate Change. This post will mostly be about Alpine Regions, their problems and some solutions. In 6b. we will move on to Polar Regions and Permafrost Zones.
For a very good overview of how Climate Change is affecting the European Alps see the excellent video by DW (42 mins) it covers everything from Europe's diminishing ski fields and glaciers, to the way melting permafrost is destablising mountains and the impact on biodiversity. Unfortunately I didn't see this film until after I had written most of this, so there may be a bit of overlap, but we'll be discussing other regions as well.
The Impact of Climate Change on Alpine Regions
The Loss of Snow
One of the first things people are noticing in Alpine regions is that there is less snow. Did you know that almost all the snow used in this year’s Winter Olympics was artificial? Like most Alpine Ski Resorts, Italy’s Dolomites are suffering from warmer winters and reduced snowfall, so this was the only way Italy could ensure good even snow. Sixty per cent of the world's ski resorts are now using it as they can no longer guarantee reliable snow without it. Italy, Austria, France, and Switzerland lead the world in the use of technical snow. Outside Europe, Australia - Heaven forbid!, New Zealand, Japan, and parts of the U.S. also rely heavily on snowmaking as natural snowfall declines.
Euro News reports that Italy has lost 265 ski resorts to rising temperatures between 1980 and 2020. This is because European Alps and other Alpine regions around the world, such as the Himalayas and the Andes are warming 2 -3 times faster than the global average and 80% of reporting regions say that snow cover and duration has diminished since 1980.
Why Artificial Snow is Not the Answer
There are a number of reasons why artificial snow is an undesirable solution. The main ones are that it requires vast quantities of water and energy and unless that energy is coming from renewable sources, it is likely to add to the problem. Other concerns revolve around its chemical composition and texture which can have a detrimental effect on the environment. The canons used to make it are disruptive to wildlife. Because it is denser than normal snow it melts differently and changes the timing and volume of snowmelt. Lastly, it is also very expensive because special infrastructure is needed as well.
Alternatives to "Fake Snow"
One of the more novel approaches being deployed in Switzerland to counter the loss of snow is the use of thermal blankets or insulating covers placed over snowfields and glaciers to reduce melting during warm seasons. These blankets reflect sunlight and provide insulation, helping to preserve ice and snow longer, which can slow glacial retreat and reduce downstream flood risks. While the Swiss Research Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research finds them up to 60% effective in protecting snowfields and glaciers, their costs make them unsuitable for large areas. The world's Alpine Regions are experiencing other changes too.
Changes in Hydrology
Long -standing records which exist for the Swiss Alps show that snow cover has declined by 7 -15% per decade between 1968 and 2017. Less snow cover changes water availability for downstream users too, especially with respect to agriculture and hydro electricity generation.
The white reflective surface of snow sends heat back into the atmosphere but the darker surface left behind as snow diminishes, absorbs heat and becomes warmer, causing local warming as well as contributing to more general warming. More bare ground = less snow. It is a self -perpetuating feedback loop. However diminishing snow is by no means the only or the most serious problem confronting Alpine regions.
More Rain
The atmospheric moisture which used to fall as snow, now falls as rain with most Alpine regions reporting increased rainfall ranging from 20 -40% more in all four seasons and an increasing incidence of extreme rainfall events. These can contribute to landslips and wet avalanches and place great strain on existing infrastructure such as dams designed for past hydrological conditions. Despite heavier rain in many regions such as the Andes, there are also longer dry periods in between.
Increasing Rockfalls and Avalanches
Another byproduct of warming is that the permafrost - the frozen ground found at high altitudes and latitudes, which has previously held rock faces together, is now melting with devastating consequences for those living in valleys below. See for example the massive landslide that engulfed Bondo in Switzerland in 2017.
In the European Alps clear links have been established between rising temperatures and an increase in rockfalls - especially during summer heatwaves. Rockfalls are also becoming larger and more frequent in other regions as well.
How the Swiss are Meeting these Challenges
Switzerland has developed some of the world’s most advanced strategies for managing these hazards, combining seismic monitoring, hydrological data, and land‑use planning into a coordinated national approach.
At the local level, protective infrastructure plays a central role—retention basins, avalanche galleries, rockfall nets, and reinforced dams help slow, divert, or contain debris flows and sudden floods.
At the regional and national levels, strict zoning regulations prevent new settlements and infrastructure from being built in the most hazard‑prone areas. In some cases, vulnerable villages have been relocated or redesigned to reduce exposure. Real‑time sensors on glaciers, slopes and rivers, feed directly into emergency services, enabling rapid alerts and timely evacuations.
There is also a strong emphasis on restoring and conserving alpine forests and wetlands, which naturally stabilise slopes, absorb floodwaters, and reduce erosion.
All of this is supported by a comprehensive early‑warning system and continuous investment in research, innovation, and modelling to improve prediction and response. Communities are kept prepared through regular drills, public education, and a strong culture of risk awareness.
Disappearing Glaciers
Another of the most visible signs of global warming is the rapid retreat of the world’s glaciers which has been observed in many countries around the world – see the clip below. (Here's the link if you you can't see it here). Switzerland has lost 40% of the ice volume in its glaciers between the 1990s and 2016, losing 10% in the years 2022 – 2023 alone, and they are also becoming increasingly unstable.
Below is a photo I took of New Zealand's Franz Joseph Glacier in 2019. By 2023, tourists were complaining about there being no glacier to see. Fortunately New Zealand is still a stunning place and many mountain regions should be able to reinvent themselves as clean air, wellness and bushwalking resorts. In fact, it could broaden their base to year - round visitation. Mt. Cook/ Aoraki has also established itself as a Dark Sky Observatory
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| This is what Glacier Retreat looks like - Franz Joseph, New Zealand 2019 |
Glaciers also play an important role in moderating global temperatures, so it is not surprising that they have been shrinking faster in recent years as they decline -another feedback loop. Last year 's International Year of the Glacier prompted a flurry of research which unfortunately showed that about one third of the glaciers in World Heritage areas are expected to disappear by 2050. Slovenia’s and Venezuela’s have already gone. At present rates of warming those in Africa will be gone even sooner with the Lewis Glacier in Kenya, which supplies water to 2 million people in both Kenya and Tanzania, likely to vanish in the next four years.
Collapsing Glaciers
How these conditions interact to create 'cascading disasters' is well -illustrated by what happened in Blatten - a Swiss mountain village in May 2025. If hardly anyone outside the region noticed what happened in Bondo - perhaps it could still be shrugged off as as a one -off event, what happened in Blatten made headlines around the world and indicated a wider problem.
A series of minor rock falls following a period of unusually warm weather, caused the upstream Birch Glacier to collapse, creating a massive rock and ice fall into the glacial lake below. This in turn created a fast -moving torrent of water, mud and debris that swept through the valley and obliterated 90% of the village.
Fortunately, thanks to early warning systems and timely evacuation of most of its 300 + residents, only one person lost their life. However, 138 homes were destroyed, along with scarce farmland, three hotels and a historic church.
The disaster also left behind a huge damage bill. With the cost of creating protective infrastructure estimated to be around $64m, cheap compared to the cost of rebuilding the village at around $900 m, many are asking whether rebuilding is worth it for so few people, especially with so many other villages facing a similar fate. Relocation would technically be cheaper, but many of these villages with their distinct ways of life have existed for centuries -since the Middle Ages in some cases, making it a difficult choice for villagers, authorities and those concerned about the loss of cultural heritage.
What Went Wrong?
Given Switzerland's sophisticated alpine risk management
system, why did it fail Blatten and Bondo? Part of the answer lies in the fact that prediction is always an inexact science at the best of times. Just as in aviation
where each accident is forensically studied and adjustments are made to prevent such an incident
in future, we are nearly always playing catch up. The other problem is that Climate Change is proceeding much faster than than expected and it's happening everywhere all at once. Switzerland has hundreds of villages like Blatten which are now at risk.
Headlines from
last summer in Europe tell the same story. I wasn’t even searching for
examples — these were on a single page of a mountain‑sports magazine
in June 2025, but the pattern was
unmistakable.
- Less than a month after Blatten, another Swiss Village had to be evacuated because of the risk of a landslide
- In Italy a collapsing glacier took the lives of 11 skiers
- In Austria, a mountain top collapsed
- And there were warnings about mountains becoming increasingly unstable due to climate change
Nevertheless, good planning, modern technologies such as satellite imagery, remote sensing and predictive tools continue to refine our responses and most likely prevent far more disasters than we dare to contemplate. What Swiss disaster management work has achieved, is that despite all these challenges, loss of life while still tragic for all concerned, has been minimal.
Glacial Lake Outbursts
As well contributing to landslips through the loss of their supportive strength as they thin and because they accumulate meltwater underneath, glaciers often create lakes at their leading edge. Here's what they look like.
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| A typical proglacial lake at the toe of the Tasman Glacier at Mt. Cook/Aoraki in New Zealand |
These can cause catastrophic flooding known as Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), when they break their banks. The banks are usually made of unconsolidated rubble (moraines) deposited as glaciers slow down. The outbursts can occur in response to upstream events such as a rockfall, an earth tremor, unusually hot weather or heavy rain, or even blasting for development - all things which have happened in the past, the difference now though, is that they are happening on steep, exposed and fragile slopes. Glacial Outbursts have been recorded with increasing frequency in numerous locations, especially in rapidly warming mountain regions such as Alaska, the Andes, and the Himalayas.
The Himalayas
Preventing or Reducing the Impact Glacial Outbursts
Key measures besides mapping and monitoring, centre primarily on building spillways and diversion canals and flood resistant infrastructure, as well as having a well -prepared and informed populace. Since glacial lake outburst floods in steep Himalayan valleys can can reach up to 40 km/h, nature -based solutions such as channel roughening, revegetation, wetland expansion and soil stabilisation help to slow rapid flows, minimise their destructive force and will to help to prevent erosion.
The Andes
As if dwindling or collapsing glaciers weren't enough, the biggest problem is that they also provide fresh water for millions, for agriculture and for electricity generation. The impact this is having on the Alps can be seen towards the end of the DW video. The situation in the Andes is already dire.
Much of the following comes from the video below, but in case you can't access it here or here, a brief summary of key points follows with a few extra ones thrown in.
Overcoming Water Scarcity and Glacier Retreat in the Andes
Keeping Less Livestock
In the European Alps, farmers are reducing their herds to match shrinking water
supplies and available pasture. Similarly, Peruvian farmers have set strict
limits on the number of animals per person to conserve scarce resources.
Mapping and Monitoring
To tackle glacier loss in Bolivia, the Flemish Government is cofunding efforts by the Government of the Netherlands to map water resources throughout the Andes, for its World Water Atlas which will enable better predictions and decisions to be made in future. Meanwhile, Japan is providing satellite technology to track
glacier retreat and is helping farmers to build small farm dams. More efficient
irrigation systems are also playing a key role in conserving water.
Infrastructure Repairs
Cities like La Paz are working hard to fix ageing water infrastructure
and prevent leaks. Yet, they still face the challenge of supplying
enough water to refugees arriving from rural areas.
Diversification
In Colombia farmers are moving away from cultivation of water-intensive commercial crops such as spring onions, towards tourism and bird watching as a
sustainable alternative.
Building Artificial Lagoons
In Peru, Quechua women are
creating artificial lagoons in depressions in the mountains to capture
rainfall for the dry periods. Some of this is also piped to the
villages.
Nature -Powered Solutions
Throughout the Andes, restoring wetlands is a priority. Wetlands slow
rainfall runoff, prevent erosion, retain soil moisture and filter water
naturally. They are also one of the few mitigation measures because they are huge carbon sinks, storing around 10% of the world's carbon, despite covering only 3% of the world's land surface. They also help to maintain biodiversity. In Colombia, protection of Peatlands which hold 20 times their weight in water is being supported by both the World Bank and Japan.
Applying Traditional Knowledge
In Chile, communities are building ice Stupas, -an ancient practice in arid parts of the Tibetan Plateau. These are ice pyramids made from glacial meltwater—to provide water during
dry seasons, but unlike in traditional ones, they are now being complemented by modern technology such solar panels,
satellite internet, and AI. Not all ideas will have merit or be appropriate in all situations - some conditions are entirely novel, but we do owe it to ourselves and future generations, to open our mind to as many options as possible. Could the Peruvian technique of using nets to capture water from fog in Andean cloud forests work in in parts of the Himalayas, for example?
Speaking of traditional techniques let's not forget some of the great ideas discussed in Agricultural Adaptations like the simple low cost West African Half Moon planting method which captures water during heavy rains for the drier times, or using Swales and cover crops to retain soil moisture may also help. Some of these might be helpful to Europe's Alpine farmers who have most likely never had to deal with such conditions.
One of my fears is that adaptations such as the ice stupas will not work once there is no more meltwater from the glaciers. Underground storage of meltwater and later rainwater, would prevent evaporation, contamination and loss. A return to the traditional stone terracing perfected by the Incas, could help to prevent the erosion of those bare slopes we see in the video and slow down runoff.
Even though every bit of soil on top of Machu Picchu's rocky peaks had to be carried there in baskets, its inhabitants were able to grow food gardens there, thanks to its stone terraces.
Impacts on Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Higher temperatures and changes in snow and rainfall regimes not only threaten water supplies, but are changing the ecology of the world’s frozen places. European researchers have noted that the tree line in the Alps is rising, but that some cold loving and high - altitude species - have nowhere else to go and may eventually be lost. Himalayan researchers who have written extensively on this topic call this the 'Escalator to Extinction.' The Snow Leopard for example, which hunts in the upper slopes and has thick fur and enormous paws to be able to walk on snow, is finding its habitat increasingly constrained as snow covered regions shrink and herders move into the greening slopes below.
The problem is compounded by the fact that high mountains, like islands, are effectively isolated and have evolved many endemic species – unique species which exist nowhere else, and often in only small numbers, which may not survive rapid changes in their environment. Even though some species such as birds and mammals can physically move to other locations, the species they depend on may not, or only do so at a much slower pace. This especially true of the Himalayas which are a biodiversity hotspot.
Beyond range shifts, there are changes in seasonal cycles and weather patterns such as the increased rainfall alternating with longer dry periods which influence timing of flowering and fruiting, insect emergence and migrations. Pollinators arrive before the flowers. Predators arrive before the prey numbers are adequate to support them or invasive species thrive before the original species have had time to adapt, crowding them out. Lower water levels in streams are likely to affect the movement of salmon and their eggs, leading to smaller catches, with impacts on subsistence communities which rely on them.
And what of animals such as the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) already endangered, which have evolved to survive in snow? This includes species such as the Stoat (Mustela erminea), the Rock Ptarmigan and the Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) for example, whose coats turn white for winter. With no snow – white against a darker background, their survival chances will be slim. Should any survive, they may evolve a more suitable camouflage after a few millennia, but it will be too late for most. Climate Change is outpacing evolution.
Countering Biodiversity Loss
All of these factors will not only change species composition, but the ecosystem in which they have evolved and upon which humans also depend. As Sarah Weiskopf, a researcher at the US Geological Survey Agency warns Natural Heritage Managers, we can no longer rely on short term plans based on historical data to guide future management, but must think long term and combine historical data with modern modelling tools to take in changing conditions. I think that applies across the board, whether we are talking about rabbits, snow bunnies or rockfalls.
What We Can Learn From All of the Above
Our climate is changing — and we must change with it, ideally anticipating what lies ahead rather than reacting after the fact. These are the key takeaways:General Adaptation Strategies
Early identification of hazards is the first step in prevention.
2. Monitoring and Hazard Mapping
Using remote sensing, field measurements, and modelling to track glacier retreat, permafrost thaw, unstable slopes, and potential outburst lakes.
3. Early‑Warning Systems
Alerts for Glacial Lake Movements, avalanches, landslides, and extreme weather events.
4. Climate‑Resilient Land‑Use Planning
Avoiding high‑risk zones, redesigning infrastructure, and planning development with future climate conditions in mind.
5. Policy and Governance Measures
7. Be Open to Old Ideas as Well as New Ones
Traditional knowledge, long‑established land practices, and nature‑based solutions may come back into their own.
8. International Co‑operation, Knowledge Sharing, and Co‑funding
9. Be Prepared to Change as the Climate Keeps Changing
We may not be able to stop all disasters, but we can limit the damage they do. Of course the best way to prevent future disasters is to keep global warming below 1.5° C. However, even if we fail at that, it is still worthwhile, because our collective efforts can buy time and make things less worse, in the same way that disaster planning does. By the way, if you know anyone who still doesn't think that Climate Change is real, show them these videos. They are not fake. I have seen many of those places with my own eyes.
Next Post: 6b. The Cryosphere -Polar Regions
Many thanks to Copilot for the image and both Copilot and Ecosia for help with formatting and information about Europe and other regions as well as some useful suggestions. And let's not forget Google either. It too turned up many useful sources, so it doesn't always have to be about AI and huge land and water guzzling data centres.
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